Military reference books and manuals (2009-2023, Volume 2)

NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

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For radar calculations, average power (W) = peak power x pulse width x pulse repetition

frequency.

Averaging Time (T_avg) - The appropriate time period over which exposure is averaged for

purposes of determining compliance with a permissible exposure limit.

Beam - A flow of electromagnetic radiation or of particles that is essentially unidirectional.

Beamwidth - The angular width between half-power points on the major lobe of an antenna

radiation pattern for a specified plane.

Computer-Indicator - A device that computes and indicates radiac data received from the

radiac detector or detectors.

Continuous Exposure - Exposure for durations exceeding the corresponding averaging

time. Exposure for less than the averaging time is called short-term exposure.

Continuous Wave - Waves, the successive oscillations of which are identical under steady-

state conditions.

Controlled Environment - A location where exposure to electromagnetic energy in excess

of the permissible exposure limits (PELs) specified for the general population may be incurred

by persons who are aware of the potential for such exposure. Examples of controlled

environments include radar and communication equipment spaces and the flight deck and

weather decks of a ship. PELs for controlled environments are listed in tables C-1 and C-2.

Cryogenics - Relating to the production of very cold temperatures.

Decibel (dB) - A dimensionless unit which is a measure of the ratio of two powers. The

number of decibels, n, corresponding to the ratio of powers P₁ and P₂ is as follows:

P₁

10log

-----

If conditions are such that the ratio of current I₁/I₂ or voltages V₁/V₂ (or analogous quantities) is

the square root of the corresponding power ratio, then the number of dB by which the

corresponding powers differ is expressed by the following equations:

P₁

I₁

10log

-----

20 log₁₀

----

¹⁰ P₂

P₁

V₁

10log

-----

20 log₁₀

-----

¹⁰ P₂

Depth of Penetration - For a plane electromagnetic wave incident on the boundary of a

medium, the distance from the boundary into the medium along the direction of propagation in

the medium, at which the field strengths of the wave have been reduced to 1/e (e=2.7183) of the

boundary values.

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Duty Cycle - The ratio of pulse duration to the pulse period of a periodic pulse train. A duty

factor of 1.0 corresponds to continuous-wave operation.

Effective Area - The effective area of an antenna in any specified direction is equal to the

square of the wavelength multiplied by the power gain (or directive gain) in that direction and

divided by 4π. That is:

= ----------

4π

Electric Field (E) - A state of the region in which stationary charged bodies are subject to

forces by virtue of their charges.

Electric Field Strength (E) - The magnitude of the electric field vector. The electric field

strength represents the magnitude of the electric force (F) on a positive test charge (q) at a point

divided by the charge:

= ---.

Electric field strength is expressed in units of V/m.

Electromagnetic Energy - The energy in an electromagnetic wave or field.

Electromagnetic Environment (EME) - The composite electromagnetic field generated by

natural and manmade sources.

Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) - Emission of energy in the form of electromagnetic

waves in any portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Electromagnetic Wave (EMW) - A wave characterized by variations of electric and magnetic

fields. EMWs are known as radio waves, heat rays, light rays, etc., depending on the frequency

at which the field varies.

Electron Volt (eV) - A unit of energy equal to the energy gained by an electron in passing

from a point of low potential to a point one volt higher in potential. One eV equals 1.602x10^-12

ergs (1.602x10^-19 joules) of energy.

Electronic Equipment - Equipment which produces useful internal signals, or serves

functionally by generating, transmitting, receiving, storing, processing, or using information in the

broadest sense. Examples are communications, radar, sonar, countermeasures, navigation,

computers, test equipment, etc.

Erg - The unit of work and of energy in the centimeter-gram-second systems. The erg is

10^-7 joule.

Exposure - The subjection of a person to electric, magnetic, or electromagnetic fields or to

contact currents other than those originating from physiological processes in the body and other

natural phenomena.

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Far-Field Region - That region of the field of an antenna where the angular field distribution

is essentially independent of the distance from the antenna. In this region (also called the free-

space region), the field has a predominantly plane-wave character; i.e., locally uniform

distributions of electric field strength and magnetic field strength in planes transverse to the

direction of propagation which decay inversely (1/r) with distance r from the antenna. For aperture

antennas, the far-field region is also referred to as the Fraunhofer region. Refer to appendix D.

Field Intensity - The measure of the magnitude of an electromagnetic field. For

communication frequencies (200 kHz to 1.0 GHz), field intensity is a measurement of the electrical

field component expressed in V/m. For radar frequencies (200 MHz to 100 GHz), field intensity

is a measurement of the average power density expressed in mW/cm².

Flammable - A relative term that applies to liquids, gases, and solids, indicating that they

are easily ignited in air.

Flammable Limits (Flammability Limits) - The minimum and maximum concentration of a

vaporized material in air which will propagate flame if ignited. The difference between the upper

and lower flammability limit is known as the flammable or explosive range. The limits are usually

expressed in terms of percentage of vapor by volume in air.

Fraunhofer Region - See Far-Field Region.

Frequency Spectrum - Range of frequencies of electromagnetic energy from both natural

phenomena and manmade sources; generally extends from less than 0.001 Hz to greater than

10²²Hz. The radio-frequency spectrum is, loosely, that portion of the total spectrum used for

information communication.

Fresnel Region - See Near-Field Region.

Hertz (Hz) - The unit of frequency, one cycle per second.

Horn Antenna - An antenna having the shape of a tube whose cross-sectional area

increases toward the open end through which radio waves pass.

Infrared - Electromagnetic waves in the approximate frequency range of 3x10¹¹ to 4x10¹⁴

Hz (wavelength: 700 nm to 1 mm).

Ionizing Radiation - Electromagnetic waves with sufficient energy to produce ions; usually

x-ray frequencies and higher.

Isotropic Antenna - A hypothetical (lossless) antenna having equal radiation intensity in all

directions. Isotropic antennas do not exist physically but represent a convenient means of

expressing directional properties of actual antennas.

Joule - The unit of energy in the metric system. One joule is equivalent to 1 watt/second.

Magnetic Field Strength (H) - A field vector that is equal to the magnetic flux density divided

by the permeability of the medium. Magnetic field strength is expressed in units of A/m.

Magnetic Flux Density (B) - A field vector quantity that results in a force (F) acting on a

charge(s) (q) moving with velocity (v). Magnetic flux density (B) is defined by the following

equation:

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



v×B





Magnetic flux density is expressed in units of tesla (T). One tesla is equal to 10⁴ gauss (G).

Main Beam of Radar - The "main beam" as used herein refers to the solid angular arc

describing the maximum radiation lobe of the radar, outside of which the power level is at least

20 dB below the maximum power level radiated.

Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) for Lasers - The maximum radiation (for a given

laser) to which a person can be exposed without adverse biological effect to the eye or skin. The

MPE is determined by three factors: laser wavelength, laser energy during exposure, and duration

of the exposure. MPE values for the eyes and skin are listed in table 5 and table 7 of ANSI

Z136.1-2000.

Microwaves - A term used rather loosely to identify radio waves in the frequency range of

300 MHz to 300,000 MHz.

Near-Field Region - A region generally in proximity to an antenna or other radiating structure

in which the electric and magnetic fields do not have a substantially plane-wave character, but

vary considerably from point to point. The near-field region is further subdivided into the reactive

near-field region, which is closest to the radiating structure and contains most or nearly all of the

stored energy, and the radiating near-field region, where the radiation field predominates over

the reactive field but lacks substantial plane-wave character and is complicated in structure. For

aperture antennas, the near-field region is also referred to as the Fresnel region. Refer to

appendix D.

NOTE

For most antennas, the outer boundary of the reactive near-field

region is commonly taken to exist at a distance of one-half

wavelength from the antenna surface.

Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) - The peak electric and magnetic field strengths (or

associated plane-wave equivalent power densities) and the induced and contact currents to which

a person may be exposed without harmful effects, even under repeated or long-term exposure

conditions. In controlled environments, the PEL is based on maintaining exposure below a

specific absorption rate (SAR) of 0.4 W/kg. That level incorporates a safety factor of 10 below a

SAR of 4 W/kg that is considered a threshold, above which there is an increasing possibility of

adverse biological effects, but at or below which there is no established evidence of any adverse

health effects. In uncontrolled environments, where personnel access is not restricted, lower

levels (equivalent to a SAR of 0.08 W/kg) have been adopted.

Polarization - Term used to describe the orientation of a time-varying electric or magnetic

field vector. If the vector is confined to a plane containing the direction of propagation as an axis

but remains constant in magnitude, the wave is circularly polarized. If the amplitude does not

remain constant, so that the end of the vector traces out an ellipse, the wave is elliptically

polarized.

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Power Density (S) - Power per unit area normal to the direction of propagation, usually

expressed in units of watts per square meter (W/m²) or, for convenience, units such as milliwatts

per square centimeter (mW/cm²) or microwatts per square centimeter (µW/cm²). For plane

waves, power density, electric field strength (E), and magnetic field strength (H) are related by

the impedance of free space; i.e., 377Ω.

Power Density, Peak - The maximum instantaneous power density occurring when power

is transmitted.

Power Density, Plane-Wave Equivalent - A commonly used term associated with any

electromagnetic wave, equal in magnitude to the power density of a plane wave having the same

electric (E) or magnetic (H) field strength.

Rad - A unit of absorbed ionizing radiation equal to 100 ergs of energy per gram.

Radar - Equipment which radiates directional electromagnetic waves and uses the

reflection of such waves from distant objects to determine their existence or position. The name

is derived from the initial letters of the expression RAdio Detection And Ranging. As used in this

manual, radar includes countermeasures, navigational, and other similar types of electronic

equipment.

Radiac - An acronym derived from the words "RadioActivity, Detection, Indication And

Computation" and used as an all-encompassing term to designate various types of radiological

measuring instruments or equipment.

Radiac Detector - A device that is sensitive to radioactivity of free nuclear particles and

reacts in a manner that can be interpreted or measured by various means.

Radiacmeter - A device that detects the presence of radioactivity and indicates the dose

rate or total dose.

Radiated Field - That portion of the total electromagnetic field produced by a current-

carrying conductor or aperture, the magnitude of whose electric or magnetic vector varies

inversely as the distance from the conductor, and the energy of which is propagated away from

the conductor. This region is made up of two distinct parts: the Fresnel or near-field region and

the Fraunhofer or far-field region. The distinction between near-field and far-field regions has no

practical meaning for small radiators but is extremely important for large antennas.

Radiation Hazards (RADHAZ) - Radio-frequency electromagnetic fields of sufficient

intensity to produce harmful biological effects in humans, cause spark ignition of volatile

combustibles, or actuate electroexplosive devices.

Radio Frequency (RF) - A frequency between 3 kHz and 300 GHz used for radio and radar

transmission.

NOTE

Although the RF spectrum is formally defined in terms of frequency

as extending from 0 to 3000 GHz, for purposes of this standard, the

frequency range of interest is 3 kHz to 300 GHz.

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Rem - An equilibration of the dose of ionizing radiation to the body in terms of its estimated

biological effect, relative to an absorbed dose of 1 roentgen of high-voltage x-rays. The rem shall

be the unit of dose for record purposes.

RF Burn - A radio-frequency (RF) burn hazard exists if there is sufficient induced RF voltage

on a metallic object to cause pain, visible skin damage, or involuntary reaction to a person who

comes in contact with the object. The RF burn phenomenon is distinct from electrical shock and

is the result of heating of the skin by RF currents.

Roentgen (R) - That amount of x- or gamma radiation which will produce 2.083 x 10⁹ ion

pairs in 1 cc of air under standard conditions. For the purpose of these regulations, 1 roentgen

of x- or gamma radiation is considered to deliver 1 rad.

Root Mean Square (rms) - The effective value, or the value associated with joule heating,

of a periodic electromagnetic wave. The rms value is obtained by taking the square root of the

mean of the squared value of a function.

Shielding - A housing, screen, or other object, usually conductive, that substantially reduces

the magnitude of electric or magnetic fields on one side thereof, upon devices or circuits on the

other side.

Spark - An electrical discharge of relatively short duration between initially separate

electrodes; the discharge may be repetitive.

Spatial Average - The root mean square of the field over an area equivalent to the vertical

cross section of the adult human body, as applied to the measurement of electric or magnetic

fields in the assessment of whole-body exposure. The spatial average is measured by scanning

(with a suitable measurement probe) a planar area equivalent to the area occupied by a standing

adult human (projected area). In most instances, a simple vertical, linear scan of the fields over

a 2-meter height (approximately 6 feet), through the center of the projected area, will be sufficient

for determining compliance with the permissible exposure limits.

Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) - The time derivative of the incremental energy (dW)

absorbed by (dissipated in) an incremental mass (dm) contained in a volume (dV) of a given

density (ρ):









SAR=

---

dtdm dtρdV

SAR is expressed in units of watts per kilogram (W/kg).

Specular Reflection - A mirrorlike reflection.

Static Region - The region around a current-carrying conductor where the magnitude of the

electromagnetic field varies inversely as the cube of the distance from the conductor, the energy

of which returns to the conductor when the current ceases. The static region is part of the near

field of an antenna.

Thermal Effect - Generally refers to the heating effects of electromagnetic radiation on

materials and people.

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Ultraviolet - Electromagnetic waves in the approximate frequency range of 7x10¹⁴ to 3x10¹⁶

Hz (wavelength: 180 nm to 400 nm).

Uncontrolled Environment - Locations where personnel access is uncontrolled, and where

radio-frequency (RF) exposures do not exceed the permissible exposure limits specified in tables

C-3 and C-4. Such locations generally represent living quarters, workplaces, and public access

areas where personnel do not expect to encounter higher levels of RF energy.

Volatile - A relative term which indicates the tendency of a liquid or solid to assume the

vapor state (evaporate).

Wavelength (λ) - Of a monochromatic wave, the distance between two points of

corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles in the direction of propagation. The wavelength

(λ) of an electromagnetic wave (EMW) is related to the frequency (f) and velocity (v) by the

expression λ=v/f. In free space, the velocity of an EMW is equal to the speed of light; i.e.,

approximately 3x10⁸ m/s.

Whole-Body Irradiation - Pertains to the case in which the entire body is exposed to the

incident electromagnetic energy or in which the cross section of the body is smaller than the cross

section of the incident radiation beam.

X-Radiation - Electromagnetic radiation of short wavelength (less than 100

), usually

produced by the bombardment of a metal target by high-energy electrons.

A-3. ABBREVIATIONS.

A/m - Amperes per Meter

ANSI - American National Standards Institute

AVGAS - Aviation Gasoline

BLK - Block

BUMED - Bureau of Medicine and Surgery

BUMEDINST - Bureau of Medicine and Surgery Instruction

cc - Cubic Centimeter

CFR - Code of Federal Regulations

cm - Centimeter

cm² - Square centimeters

CO₂ - Carbon Dioxide

dB - Decibel

dBd - dB Relative to Dipole Antenna

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dBi - dB Relative to Isotropic Antenna

dBm - Decibel Referred to 1 Milliwatt

dBW - Decibel Referred to 1 Watt

DoD - Department of Defense

DODINST - Department of Defense Instruction

DSN - Defense Switching Network

E-field - Electric Field

EMCON - Emission Control

EMR - Electromagnetic Radiation

EMW - Electromagnetic Wave

eV - Electron Volt

f - Frequency

FDA - Food and Drug Administration

FM - Frequency Modulation

ft - Feet

GHz - Gigahertz (1,000 MHz to 10⁹ Hz)

HERF - Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Fuel

HERO - Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance

HERP - Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Personnel

HF - High Frequency (3-30 MHz)

H-field - Magnetic Field

HP - Hewlett Packard

hr - Hour

Hz - Hertz

IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

kg - Kilogram

kHz - Kilohertz (10³ Hz)

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kW - Kilowatt (10³ watts)

Laser - Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

LSRB - Laser Safety Review Board

m or M - Meter(s)

mA - Milliampere (10^-3 ampere)

MCO - Marine Corps Order

MHz - Megahertz (10⁶ Hz)

min - Minutes

MK - Mark

mm - Millimeter

MOGAS - Motor Gasoline (i.e., automotive gasoline)

MPE - Maximum Permissible Exposure

mR - Milliroentgen

MW - Megawatt (10⁶ watts)

mW - Milliwatt (10^-3 watt)

mW/cm² - Milliwatts per Square Centimeter

N₂ - Nitrogen

N/A - Not Applicable

NAVAIR - Naval Air Systems Command

NAVMEDINST - Naval Medical Command Instruction

NAVSEA - Naval Sea Systems Command

nm - Nanometer

NSN - National Stock Number

OPNAV - Chief of Naval Operations

OPNAVINST - Chief of Naval Operations Instruction

PD - Power Density

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PEL - Permissible Exposure Limit

R - Roentgen

Radar - RAdio Detection And Ranging

RADHAZ - Radiation Hazards

Radiac - RadioActivity, Detection, Indication And Computation

rev - Revolutions

RF - Radio Frequency

RFR - Radio Frequency Radiation

rms - Root Mean Square

rpm - Revolutions per Minute

SAR - Specific Absorption Rate

sec - Second(s)

SECNAV - Secretary of the Navy

SPAWAR - Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command

TAF - Time Averaging Factor

TAI - Time Average Interval

TX - Transmitter

TXPD - TX Power Density

UHF - Ultrahigh Frequency (300 MHz to 3 GHz)

VHF - Very High Frequency (30 to 300 MHz)

V/m - Volts per Meter

W - Watt

w/ - With

W/kg - Watts per Kilogram

A-4. SYMBOLS.

@ - At

α - Alpha particle

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APPENDIX B

REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

ANSI Document

Z136.1-2000

American National Standard for the Safe Use of Lasers

BUMED Instructions

6470.23 (series)

Medical Management of Non-Ionizing Radiation

Casualties

CFR (Code of Federal Regulations)

Title 21, Subchapter J,

Regulations for the Administration and Enforcement of

Parts 1040.10 to 1040.30

the Radiation Control for Health and Safety Act of 1968

DoD Instruction

6055.11

Protection of DoD Personnel from Exposure to Radio

Frequency Radiation and Military Exempt Lasers

IEEE Standard

IEEE C95.1

Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to

1999 Edition

Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to

300 GHz

NAVMED Instruction

P-5055

Radiation Health Protection Manual

OPNAV Instructions

5100.19 (series)

Navy Occupational Safety and Health (NAVOSH)

Program Manual for Forces Afloat

5100.23 (series)

Navy Occupational Safety and Health (NAVOSH)

Program Manual

5100.27/MCO 5104.1

Navy Laser Hazards Control Program

(series)

SECNAV Instructions

5100.14 (series)

Military Exempt Lasers

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APPENDIX C

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND SAFE

EXPOSURE LIMITS

C-1. INTRODUCTION

This appendix describes the biological effects of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) on the

human body over the frequency range of 0.003 Hz (3 kHz) to 300 GHz. The limits to which the

body can safely be exposed are specified in tables C-1 through C-4 and figures C-1 and C-2.

C-2. FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL RELATIONSHIPS

Biological tissue exposed to radio-frequency (RF) energy is heated by means of

molecular agitation. Dielectric heating of biological tissue by the absorption of RF energy is the

fundamental principle of the microwave oven. It is this potential for heat generation, as well as

the possibility for tissue damage, that prompted the development of RF exposure limits.

The basic dosimetric parameter for RF exposure is the (whole-body) specific absorption

rate (SAR). The SAR is defined as the amount of energy, absorbed over an exposure time

period, divided by the total mass of the body. SAR is expressed in units of watts per kilogram

(W/kg). As specified in Department of Defense Instruction (DODINST) 6055.11, the SAR for

human exposure is set at a threshold of 0.4 W/kg for controlled environments and 0.08 W/kg for

uncontrolled environments. These levels represent a safety factor of 10. At 4 W/kg and above,

the chances for adverse biological effects increase, but below this threshold, there is no

established evidence of harm to humans.

Whole-body SAR is frequency dependent, and the resonance frequency is about

70 MHz. This resonance occurs at frequencies for which the length of the body is

approximately one-half of the free-space wavelength. The average SAR is highest when the

incident RF electric field (E-field) is nearly parallel to the human body. When a person is

standing on a perfect ground plane, his electrical length appears twice as tall compared to free

space, thus lowering the resonant frequency to one-half of free space. For incident magnetic

fields (H-fields), SAR is greater when the cross section of the body is perpendicular to the

incident H-field.

Because SAR is not a field measurement and can be measured only with laboratory-type

equipment, derived equivalent limits that are measurable with commercially available

instruments are used to determine the permissible exposure limits (PELs). PELs for controlled

and uncontrolled environments are specified in tables C-1 through C-4 and graphically as

figures C-1 and C-2. These derived equivalent limits are measurable in terms of root-mean-

square (rms) E-field and H-field strengths and plane-wave equivalent power densities (S).

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E-field and H-field strengths are expressed in volts per meter (V/m) and amperes per meter (A/

m), respectively, while plane-wave equivalent power densities are expressed in milliwatts per

square centimeter (mW/cm²).

Table C-1. PELs for Controlled Environments (Electromagnetic Fields^†)

POWER

AVERAGING

FREQUENCY

ELECTRIC

MAGNETIC

DENSITY (S)

TIME

RANGE

FIELD STRENGTH

E-FIELD, H-FIELD

|E|², |H|², or S

(MHz)

(E) (V/m)

(H) (A/m)

(mW/cm²)

(MINUTES)

0.003-0.1

614

163

(100, 1000000)‡

0.1-3.0

614

16.3/f

(100, 10000/f²)‡

3-30

1842/f

16.3/f

(900/f², 10000/f²)

30-100

61.4

16.3/f

(1.0, 10000/f²)

100-300

61.4

0.163

1.0

300-3000

f/300

3000-15000

15000-300000

616000/f^1.2

NOTES:

† f is the frequency in MHz. The exposure values in terms of electric and magnetic field strengths are the

mean values obtained by spatially averaging the squares of the fields over an area equivalent to the ver-

tical cross section of the human body (projected area).

‡These plane-wave equivalent power density values, although not appropriate for near-field conditions,

are commonly used as a convenient comparison with PELs at higher frequencies and are displayed on

some instruments in use.

Table C-2. PELs for Controlled Environments (Induced and Contact Current*^,**)

FREQUENCY

MAXIMUM CONTACT

MAXIMUM INDUCED CURRENT (mA)

CURRENT (mA)

RANGE

(MHz)

THROUGH BOTH FEET

THROUGH EACH FOOT

THROUGH ONE HAND

0.003-0.

2000f

1000f

0.1-100

200

100

NOTES:

* f is the frequency in MHz. The current limits given may not adequately protect against startle reactions

and burns caused by transient discharges when contacting an energized object.

**In a controlled environment, access should be restricted to limit the rms RF body current (based on the

appropriate averaging time) as follows:

For freestanding individuals (no contact with metallic objects), RF current induced in the human body, as mea-

sured through each foot, should not exceed the following values:

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NOTES (Continued):

I =

1000f mA(for0.003 < f ≤ 0.1MHz)

where

I is the average over any 1-second period,

ƒ is the frequency in MHz.

100f mA(for0.1 < f ≤ 100MHz)

subject to a ceiling limit of 500 mA

where

is the rms current during any 6-minute period.

2) For conditions of possible contact with metallic objects, where making or breaking the contact does not result in

any momentary spark discharge or high skin-surface current density causing startle reaction, pain, burns, or

other skin injury, maximum RF currents through an impedance equivalent to that of the human body for condi-

tions of grasping contact as measured with a contact current meter shall not exceed the following values:

I =

1000f mA(for0.003 < f ≤ 0.1MHz)

where

I is the average over any 1-second period,

ƒ is the frequency in MHz.

100f mA(for 0.1 < f < 100MHz)

subject to a ceiling limit of 500 mA

where

is the rms current during any 6-minute period.

I ½

-∫ I dt

(

f ≤ 100kHz, T= 1

second)

and

1--

-∫ ^I2

(

f > 100kHz, T

360

seconds)

The means for complying with this current limit can be determined by the user of the PEL as appropriate. The use

of protective gloves, the prohibition of metallic objects, or training of personnel may be sufficient to assure

compliance with this aspect of the PEL in controlled environments.

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Table C-3. PELs for Uncontrolled Environments (Electromagnetic Fields†)

ELECTRIC

MAGNETIC

POWER

FREQUENC

FREQUENCY

AVERAGING TIME

FIELD

DENSITY (S)

RANGE

|E|²,S or

|H|²,

STRENGTH

E-FIELD, H-FIELD

RANGE

(MHz)

(MINUTES)

(E) (V/m)

(H) (A/m)

(mW/cm²)

(MHz)

0.003-0.1

614

163

(100, 1000000)‡

0.1-1.34

614

16.3/f

(100, 10000/ƒ²)‡

1.34-3.0

823.8/f

16.3/f

(180/f², 10000/f²)

f²/0.3

3-30

823.8/f

16.3/f

(180/f², 10000/f²)

30-100

27.5

158.3/f^1.668

(0.2, 940000/f^3.336)

0.0636f^1.337

100-300

27.5

0.0729

0.2

300-3000

f/1500

3000-15000

f/1500

90000/f

15000-300000

616000/f^1.2

NOTES:

† f is the frequency in MHz. The exposure values in terms of electric and magnetic field strengths are the

mean values obtained by spatially averaging the squares of the fields over an area equivalent to the ver-

tical cross section of the human body (projected area).

‡These plane-wave equivalent power density values, although not appropriate for near-field conditions,

are commonly used as a convenient comparison with PELs at higher frequencies and are displayed on

some instruments in use.

Table C-4. PELs for Uncontrolled Environments (Induced and Contact Current*^,**)

FREQUENCY

MAXIMUM INDUCED CURRENT (mA)

MAXIMUM CONTACT

RANGE

CURRENT (mA)

(MHz)

THROUGH BOTH FEET

THROUGH EACH FOOT

THROUGH ONE HAND

0.003-0.1

900f

450f

0.1-100

NOTES:

* f is the frequency in MHz. The current limits given may not adequately protect against startle reactions

and burns caused by transient discharges when contacting an energized object.

** In an uncontrolled environment, where individuals unfamiliar with the phenomenon of induced RF cur-

rents may have access, it is recommended that precautions be taken to limit induced currents to values

not normally perceptible to individuals, as well as to prevent the possibility of RF burns.

C-4

NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

NOTES (Continued):

1) For freestanding individuals (no contact with metallic objects), RF current induced in the human body, as mea-

sured through each foot, should not exceed the following values:

450f mA(for 0.003<

f ≤ 0.1MHz

)

where

is the average over any 1-second period,

ƒ is the frequency in MHz.

45mA(for 0.1<

100MHz

)

subject to a ceiling limit of 220 mA

where

is the rms current during any 6-minute period.

2) For conditions of possible contact with metallic objects, where making or breaking the contact does not result in

any momentary spark discharge or high skin-surface current density causing startle reaction, pain, burns, or

other skin injury, maximum RF currents through an impedance equivalent to that of the human body for condi-

tions of grasping contact as measured with a contact current meter shall not exceed the following values:

450f mA(for 0.003

f ≤ 0.1MHz

)

where

is the average over any 1-second period,

ƒ is the frequency in MHz.

45 mA(for 0.1<

100MHz

)

subject to a ceiling limit of 220 mA

where

is the rms current during any 6-minute period.

I ½

-∫ I dt

(

f ≤ 100kHz, T= 1

second)

and

-∫ ^I2

(

f > 100kHz, T=360

seconds).

C-5

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C-3. THERMAL EFFECTS

The heat produced by RF radiation may adversely affect live tissue. If the body cannot

dissipate this heat energy as fast as it is produced, the internal temperature of the body will rise.

Under extreme RF exposure conditions, this may result in damage to the tissue and possible

death.

The depth of penetration and coincident heating effects of RF energy on the human

tissue are frequency dependent. A transition region exists between 1 and 3 GHz. Below

1 GHz, the RF energy penetrates to the deep body tissues; above 3 GHz, the heating effect

occurs closer to the surface. At the higher frequencies, the body has an inherent warning

system in the sensory elements located in the skin. At RF frequencies between 1 and 3 GHz,

the thermal effects are subjected to varying degrees of penetration.

The body’s ability to dissipate heat successfully depends upon many related factors,

such as environmental air circulation rate, clothing, RF power density, and duration of exposure

(time). Temperature regulation in the human body is accomplished primarily through the action

of sweat glands (cooling through evaporation) and by heat exchange resulting from peripheral

circulation of blood.

If RF exposure is not prolonged and within the time exposure limits specified in

DODINST 6055.11, the internal core temperature of the body will remain normal. Where areas

of the body are cooled by an adequate flow of blood through the vascular system, there is less

likelihood of tissue damage resulting from abnormal temperatures.

C-4. NONTHERMAL EFFECTS

References are sometimes made to nonthermal biological effects of EMR. This means

that the observed effect was not related to the biological heating of tissues.

The guidelines and limits stipulated in DODINST 6055.11 are based on short-term

thermal effects. The various technical and health experts who contributed towards the

development of these guidelines and limits have concluded that no reliable scientific data exist

that support nonthermal (other than shock) EMR effects. In addition, no verified reports exist of

injury or adverse effects on the health of humans who have been exposed to electromagnetic

fields within the limits of frequency and SAR specified in DODINST 6055.11.

C-5. TIME-AVERAGED EXPOSURE

For controlled environments, personnel exposure levels higher than those shown in table

C-1 are permitted if the average exposure, over a 6-minute time interval, does not exceed PEL.

This is true for frequencies from 0.003 MHz to 15 GHz (15000 MHz). For frequencies above 15

GHz, the averaging time interval is frequency dependent. Similarly, in uncontrolled

environments, averaging time varies by frequency, as shown in table C-3.

C-8

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The following example, representative of a common workplace safety concern, is

provided to help understand the concept of time-averaged RF exposure limits, as well as the

method by which such limits are calculated.

A worker wishes to conduct maintenance in an area close to a transmitting antenna. The

radiated power density in the desired work area has been surveyed (measured) and found to

exceed PEL by a factor of two. The transmitter cannot be silenced, nor can the transmitted

power be reduced. Given the following conditions, determine if maintenance personnel can

safely enter the area and, if so, for how long.

TX Frequency is 200 MHz

TX Power Density (TXPD) is 2 mW/cm²

PEL at 200 MHz is 1 mW/cm²

Time Average Interval (TAI) is 6 Min

Calculated Time Averaging Factor (TAF) = PEL/TXPD

TAF = (1 mW/cm²)/(2 mW/cm²) = 0.5

Calculated new Time Average Interval (TAI’)

TAI’ = TAF*TAF or (6)*(0.5), which equals 3 Min

Based upon the above calculation, workers are permitted to conduct maintenance

operations in the RF hazard area for 3 minutes, after which they must leave the area for a

minimum of 3 additional minutes before returning.

C-9/(C-10 Blank)

NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

APPENDIX D

CALCULATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

SECTION I. CALCULATIONS OF POWER DENSITY IN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

D-1. INTRODUCTION

D-1.1

Section I discusses the electromagnetic environment and calculations of power density

in an electromagnetic field. This is followed by an introduction to calculation aids, and various

tables and examples that can be used in the prediction of radio-frequency (RF) radiation

hazards.

D-1.2

Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is the emission of energy from a source in the form of

an electromagnetic wave. EMR is not visible nor is it detected reliably by any biological

response. EMR intensity must be measured by instruments or approximated by calculation.

This section provides procedures and tabular material which aid in calculating the power

density radiated from large-aperture antennas.

D-1.3

These computations enable the supervisor or any other designated personnel to derive

power density as power flow per unit area expressed in milliwatts per square centimeter (mW/

cm²). From these calculations, safe distances can be determined to reduce the possibilities of

personnel exposure to excessive EMR or accidental ignition of ordnance materials or fuels.

D-1.4

Calculations may be conducted in either the metric or English system of units as long

as consistency is maintained. Both centimeters (cm) and meters are commonly used to

calculate power density in mW/cm² or watts per square meter (W/m²). The correction factor

graphs are presented with distance in wavelengths, which gives a dimensionless number that

can be used with all units. Units shown in examples are selected as typical applications.

D-2. THE ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT

D-2.1

The spatial regions of radiation associated with any arbitrary antenna are known as the

near-field region (which generally contains two subregions: the static near-field region and

induction, or radiating, near-field region) and the far-field region (or radiation region). For

aperture antennas, the near-field and far-field regions are also known as the Fresnel and

Fraunhofer regions, respectively, because the Scalar Diffraction Theory is used to determine

the fields generated from these antennas. There is also a third region of radiation, the

intermediate region, which is a region of transition between the near- and far-field regions. The

fields in the intermediate region are generally complex and are, therefore, difficult to determine.

However, the spatial extent of the intermediate radiation region is generally small compared to

the extent of the near- and far-field regions; therefore, the intermediate region is generally

ignored in determining electromagnetic field quantities, or it is included as part of the near field.

D-1

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VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

The far-fi\eld region of an antenna is traditionally defined as the region around an antenna

where the phase front of a spherical electromagnetic wave over a planar aperture does not

exceed

radians (22.5º). The far-field region begins at a distance from the antenna given

π⁄8

by the Friis Free-Space Transmission Formula:

≥ --------

where λ is the wavelength of the radiation. For wire, monopole, and dipole antennas, L is

taken as the electrical length of the antenna (e.g., for a monopole or a half-wavelength dipole

antenna,

). For an aperture antenna, L is generally taken as the largest linear

L = λ⁄2

dimension of the aperture.

In the far-field region of the antenna, the magnitudes of the electric and magnetic fields vary

inversely with the distance from the antenna (E, H∝1⁄ r

). Furthermore, the ratio of the electric

field magnitude to the magnetic field magnitude (

E⁄H

), also called the wave impedance, has a

constant value of 377 ohms

(Ω)

Because of the inverse relation between the electric/magnetic field magnitudes and the

distance from the antenna, the power radiated from the antenna can be envisioned as being

distributed over a spherical shell at that distance such that:

= -----------

4πr²

where:

S = power density of the radiation (in W/m² or mW/cm²),

P = total power transmitted from the antenna [in watts (W) or milliwatts (mW)],

G = far-field gain (power ratio) of the antenna, and

r = distance from the antenna (meters or cm).

The gain, G, is generally known for an antenna since the parameter is specified in the

documentation provided by the antenna manufacturer or calibration lab. However, if the gain of

an antenna is not known, it can be calculated to an acceptable degree of accuracy by the

following, provided the antenna azimuth and elevation beamwidths are known or measured:

≈ --------------

azθel

where:

φ_az

= azimuth angle beamwidth, in radians,

θ_el

= elevation angle beamwidth, in radians, and

180°

1 radian =

D-2

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VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

From the gain and radiation wavelength, another useful quantity, the effective area of the

antenna (the area of the antenna beam-forming surface), A_e, can be calculated:

= ----------

4π

In the real world, measurements of radiation from an emitting antenna source are conducted

using another antenna with its own characteristics. If A_er and G_r are the effective area and gain

of the measurement antenna, respectively, then we expect the total power P

r received by the

measurement antenna to be:

G_tP_t

Grλ2

P_r = SAer

-----------

⋅

------------

4π

4πr²





G_tG_rP_tλ²

P_r

= -----------------------

(4πr)²

where:

G_t = gain of the transmitting antenna, and

P_t = total power transmitted from transmitting antenna.

Therefore, alternatively:

P_r

4πP_r

-------

= ------------

A_er

G_rλ²

Again, S can be expressed in mW/cm² or W/m².

With the power density S known, it becomes a relatively simple matter (in the far field) to

determine the magnitudes of the electric and magnetic fields. The power density, electric field,

and magnetic field are related by:

S = EHsinα,

where:

α = angle between the electric and magnetic field amplitude directions.

Since, in the far field, EMR propagates as a transverse wave (α=90º or π/2 radians), and

since the magnetic and electric fields are related to each other by the wave impedance, we

have:

D-3

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VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

S = E²W⁄m2

S = ZH² W⁄m²

where:

E = electric field intensity in volts per meter,

H = magnetic field intensity in amperes per meter, and

Z = wave impedance = 377Ω.

Note that 1 W/m² = 0.1 mW/cm².

D-2.2

In the near-field region of an antenna (also known as the Fresnel region for aperture

antennas), determination of electromagnetic field characteristics is more complicated. The

electric and magnetic fields are generally dependent on the source of the radiation and can vary

with both angular position and distance around an antenna. Furthermore, the wave impedance

of the radiation is no longer a constant value, as it was in the far-field (Fraunhofer) region. In

general, a source antenna that has a high terminal voltage, high impedance, and low driver

current will generate a high electric field in the near field which varies as 1/r³ (r being, once

again, the distance between the antenna and measurement point), while the magnetic field

varies as 1/r²; the wave impedance of such an antenna will be much greater than 377Ω, on the

order of thousands of ohms. However, a source antenna that has low terminal voltage, low

impedance, and high driver current will generate a higher magnetic field in the near-field region

which varies as 1/r³, while the electric field varies as 1/r². The wave impedance of an antenna

where the magnetic field is the dominant radiation component will typically be one to two orders

of magnitude below the far-field wave impedance. Note that, as the distance from an antenna is

increased, the variation of the electric and magnetic fields with distance will approach the

characteristic 1/r dependence associated with the far-field region. Furthermore, as distance

from the antenna is increased, the wave impedance will asymptotically approach the constant

value of 377Ω.

Because the antenna gain and beamwidth are degraded in the near-field region, the

power density will be modified such that:

= ----------- ⋅ N

4πr²

where N is the near-field correction factor, and G, P, and r are as previously defined.

Again, since we are making measurements in the real world, the possibility exists that

fields from a radiating source could be measured in the near-field region of the receiving

antenna used for the measurements. Therefore, a correction factor for the measurement

antenna may have to be used such that:

D-4

NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

G_tG_rP_tλ²

P_r = SAer

----------------------- N_t ⋅ _Nr

(4πr)²

P_r

4πP_r

-------

= ------------------

N_rG_rλ²

where:

N_t = near-field correction factor for the source antenna, and

N_r = near-field correction factor for the measurement antenna.

The other parameters in the above equations are as previously defined.

The near-field correction factor, N, is dependent on several parameters, namely:

a. Mismatch (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) loss derived from the reflection at the antenna

feed port because of impedance mismatch.

b. RF losses between the antenna and the antenna feed point or measurement point.

c. Spillover loss, which takes into account energy spillover beyond the edge of a reflector

antenna into the backlobes of the antenna.

d. Illumination efficiency, which is the ratio of the directivity of an antenna to the directivity of

a uniformly illuminated antenna of the same aperture size.

e. Phase error loss, or loss resulting from the fact that the antenna aperture is not a uniform

phase surface.

Parameters a. and b. above are generally applicable to all antennas and are usually

determined by measurement. Parameter c. is applicable to reflector antennas and is also

usually determined by measurement. Parameters d. and e. are generally applicable to aperture

antennas and can be calculated, to a reasonable approximation, using the methods outlined in

the following paragraphs.

D-2.3

For aperture antennas, the near-field correction factor depends on the type of antenna

illumination and the distance from the antenna. If the antenna illumination is unknown, it can be

estimated by the following formulas.

D-2.4

After calculating R, as shown in figure D-1, the illumination can be estimated from

tables D-1 and D-2. This estimate is then checked by calculating the antenna efficiency.

Illuminations above cos⁴ or (1-r²)⁴ are purposely omitted since the gain reduction in the Fresnel

region would be almost negligible.

D-5

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VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

–

5.84

(f)(BW)(L or D in meters),

–

5.84

(f)(BW)(L or D in cm), or

–

1.78

(f)(BW)(L or D in feet),

where:

R = constant for estimating illumination,

ƒ = frequency in megahertz (MHz),

BW = beamwidth in degrees (horizontal or vertical) at 3 dB points,

L = horizontal or vertical dimension of a rectangular aperture antenna, and

D = diameter of a circular aperture antenna.

Figure D-1. Calculation of Antenna Illumination Constant

Table D-1. Rectangular Apertures

ESTIMATED

LIMITS OF R

F_h or F_v

ILLUMINATION

0.88 to 1.20

uniform

1.000

1.20 to 1.45

cos

0.810

1.45 to 1.66

cos²

0.667

1.66 to 1.93

cos³

0.575

1.93 to 2.03

cos⁴

0.515

NOTE:

F = F_h ⋅F_v

Table D-2. Circular Apertures with (1-r²)^ρ Illumination

ESTIMATED

LIMITS OF R

ILLUMINATION

1.02 to 1.27

uniform

1.00

1.27 to 1.47

(1-r²) Taper

0.75

1.47 to 1.65

(1-r²)² Taper

0.56

1.65 to 1.81

(1-r²)³ Taper

0.44

>1.81

(1-r²)⁴ Taper

0.36

D-2.5

When the constant (R) is found to be borderline between two orders of illumination, the

higher order should be checked for antenna efficiency first, because the power density in the

D-6

NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

Fresnel region will be greater and, therefore, more hazardous to personnel. If the choice of the

higher illumination causes the efficiency to be too high, then the next lower order can be tried.

The antenna efficiency can be checked by the equation:

K = G(λ)2

4π(A)F

where:

K = antenna efficiency,

A = antenna aperture area (same units as λ), and

F = factor depending on antenna illumination.

The numerical factor (F) is tabulated in tables D-1 and D-2 adjacent to the type of antenna

illumination. An efficiency (K) within the limits of 0.0017 to 1.0 is reasonable.

D-3. CALCULATION OF THE ON-AXIS POWER DENSITY FROM LARGE-APERTURE

ANTENNAS IN THE FRESNEL REGION

D-3.1

RECTANGULAR ANTENNAS. After the illumination has been determined, the Fresnel

gain correction factors for both the horizontal and vertical planes can be found using the

appropriate aperture dimension. Graphic curves of gain versus distance have been provided

for finding the gain correction factors within the Fresnel region of antennas, depending on the

type of illumination of the antenna. Graphs showing uniform, cos, cos², cos³, and cos⁴

illumination are given by figures D-2 through D-6. On each of these graphs, the abscissa is the

distance from the antenna in wavelengths, and the ordinate is the gain reduction in decibels

(dB) within the Fresnel region. The aperture dimension, L, on the graphs is in wavelengths.

The Fresnel gain is always less than the far-field gain and is determined by subtracting the

appropriate gain reduction for both horizontal and vertical planes from the far-field gain.

Therefore, by the use of this reduced gain in the far-field equation, the power density in the

Fresnel region can be calculated.

D-3.2

CIRCULAR ANTENNAS. After the illumination has been determined, the Fresnel

region power density can be determined by calculating the far-field distance (d=2D²/λ meters),

calculating the power density at this point by the Friis Free-Space Transmission Formula:

= ----------------

4π(d)²

and by multiplying this power density by the gain correction factor given in figure D-7 for the

desired distance (d) and antenna illumination.

D-7

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D-4. CALCULATION OF POWER DENSITY OF SIDELOBES

Under certain circumstances, it may be necessary to calculate the power density at a

location to the side of a radar antenna main beam. If the antenna in question does not have its

aperture distribution defined in its fundamental characteristics, the aperture distribution

parameters can be established by using tables D-3 and D-4. Table D-3 defines the directivity

patterns for circular aperture from (1-r²)⁰ through (1-r²)² illumination, while table D-4 defines the

directivity patterns of rectangular aperture from uniform through cos² illumination. Because the

sidelobe is less than the main beam, the power density is given as:

= ------------

---- (SL)

4π(d)²

where:

SL = gain degradation of the first sidelobes.

The angular displacement in degrees of the first sidelobes is also listed in tables D-3 and D-4.

Table D-3. Circular Aperture Distribution

INTENSITY

ANGULAR

HALF-POWER

OF FIRST

DISPLACEMENT

TYPE OF

DISPLACEMENT

BEAMWIDTH

SIDELOBE

TO FIRST

ILLUMINATION

TO FIRST ZERO

IN DEGREES

DB BELOW

SIDELOBE

IN DEGREES

MAXIMUM

IN DEGREES

58.9^λ

69.8^λ

17.6

97.4^λ

(

r²

)⁰

72.7^λ

93.6^λ

24.6

119.8^λ

(

r²

)¹

84.3^λ

116.2^λ

139.3^λ

(

r²

)²

30.6

NOTE: D = Aperture diameter in the same units as λ.

Table D-4. Rectangular Aperture Distribution

INTENSITY

ANGULAR

HALF-POWER

OF FIRST

DISPLACEMENT

TYPE OF

DISPLACEMENT

BEAMWIDTH

SIDELOBE

TO FIRST

ILLUMINATION

TO FIRST ZERO

IN DEGREES

DB BELOW

SIDELOBE

IN DEGREES

MAXIMUM

IN DEGREES

Uniform

13.2

Cosine

Cosine Squared

114.6^λ

NOTE: L = Vertical or horizontal length of aperture in the same units as λ.

D-14

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VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

D-5. SAMPLE ON-AXIS POWER DENSITY COMPUTATION

D-5.1

For rectangular aperture antennas, the preceding procedures are illustrated by the

calculation of near-field power density of an imaginary AN/SPS-00 radar as shown in figure D-8.

For circular aperture antennas, the calculation of near-field power density is illustrated in figure

D-9 for a hypothetical antenna with a circular aperture.

D-5.2

For rectangular aperture antennas, the near-field gain correction factor (N) is the sum

of the vertical and horizontal gain correction factors in dB. These factors are derived from the

graphs in figures D-2 through D-6, which show the near-field gain correction in dB as a function

of the antenna dimension (either vertical or horizontal) in wavelengths and the distance (d) from

the antenna in wavelengths. For circular aperture antennas, the near-field numerical gain

correction factors are derived from the graph in figure D-7.

D-6. DETERMINING THE HAZARD FROM A ROTATING BEAM

D-6.1

Although the on-axis power density of a radar beam may exceed the PELs specified in

tables C-1 and C-3, there may be no hazard if the beam is being rotated or scanned. Duration

of exposure, as well as power density, is a factor in determining the RF hazard. The time factor

is recognized by specifying the PEL in two ways: for example, 10 mW/cm2 for continuous

exposure, and 1 mW-hr/cm2 in any given 0.1-hour interval. Since a continuous 10 mW/cm2 for

0.1 hour produces energy of 1 mW-hr/cm2, these limits are identical for the case of continuous

exposure. The latter limit, though, expresses the fact that higher power densities up to 100

mW/cm2 are permissible for intermittent exposure. To illustrate the use of this criterion for a

rotating antenna, assume the following radiation characteristics:

Maximum power density on axis

50 mW/cm²

Beamwidth

10 degrees

Rotation speed

6 rpm

D-15

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VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

1. The assumed characteristics of the AN/SPS-00 antennas are as follows:

Antenna width = 0.991 meters (3.25 ft) = 29λ

Antenna height = 0.177 meters (0.58 ft) = 5.2λ

Gain (far-field) = 29.3 dB = 851 gain ratio

Center frequency = 8825 MHz

Beamwidth = 3.0° horizontal and 13° vertical

Power = 13.1 W (average power at 0.5 µsec pulse width)

= -----------

= 0.034

meter (0.11 ft)

8825

Far field

where L is the longest linear dimension of antenna (meters)

(0.991)²

= 57.8 meters.

0.034

R, the constant for estimating illumination, is found by:

–

5.84

(f)(BW)(L in meters)

Where:

ƒ = frequency in MHz,

BW = beamwidth in degrees (horizontal or vertical) at 3 dB points, and

L = horizontal or vertical dimension in meters (feet).

For horizontal illumination:

–

5.84

(8825)

(3.0)

(0.991)

R = 1.53

- estimated illumination is cos² (from table D-1).

For vertical illumination:

–

5.84

(8825)

(13)

(0.177)

R = 1.19

- estimated illumination is uniform (from table D-1).

Figure D-8. Sample On-Axis Power Density Computation for a Rectangular

Aperture Antenna (Sheet 1)

D-16

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2. Antenna efficiency (K) is checked by using values from table D-1 of:

F_h = 0.667

and

F_v = 1.0

F = F_h × F_v = 0.667

(0.034)²

K = G(λ)2

= ------------------------------

4π(A)F

(3.14)

(0.991)

(0.177)

(0.667)

K = 0.67 verifying estimated illuminations.

3. N is the sum of the horizontal and vertical correction factors obtained from figure D-4 for cos²

and figure D-2 for uniform illumination. At 1 meter (3.28 ft) or 29λ, the horizontal gain reduction

is approximately 9.0 dB; the vertical gain reduction at 1 meter is 0.1 dB.

Therefore,

N(dB) = (-9.0dB) + (-0.1dB)

= -9.1dB

N(ratio)

= antilog

(-0.91)= ------

8.1

at 1 meter

= ---------------- (N)

4π(d)²

13.1

(851)

× ------

8.1

12.56

(1)²

109 W⁄m²

109 mW⁄cm²

Figure D-8. Sample On-Axis Power Density Computation for a Rectangular

Aperture Antenna (Sheet 2)

D-17

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1. The assumed characteristics of a hypothetical circular aperture antenna are as follows:

a. Aperture diameter (D) = 2 meters

b. Gain (far-field) (G) = 21 dB = 126 (numerical gain)

c. Center frequency (ƒ) = 5000 MHz

d. Beamwidth = 3°

e. Power (P) = 50 W (average)

f. Wavelength (λ)

= --------= 0.06

meters

g. Far-field distance

= --------- =

133.33

meters

–

h. Antenna illumination constant (R)

5.84

(f)(beamwidth)(D)

–

5.84

(5000)

(3)

(2)

= 1.752 .

Using table D-2, the value of R, 1.752, indicates a circular aperture antenna with an

estimated (1-r2)3 taper illumination. The corresponding antenna illumination factor (F), also

from table D-2, is equal to 0.44.

2. Antenna efficiency (K)

= --------------

4πAF

(0.06)²

= -----------------

4π(πD² ⁄4)(0.44)

(0.0036)

= ---------

π²(2)²(0.44)

= 0.026

Figure D-9. Sample On-Axis Power Density Computation for a

Circular Aperture Antenna (Sheet 1)

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VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

3. N is the circular aperture gain correction obtained from figure D-7. Since our hypothetical

antenna was found to have a (1-r²)³ taper illumination, the curve specified for ρ=3 would be

applicable. Therefore, the power density at a point 5 meters away from the antenna would

be as follows:

a. With d=5m, the normalized distance (with respect to the far-field distance) X is

calculated as:

2D²





⁄

= -------------=

0.0375 .





133.3

b. From figure D-7, N is found to have a value of 100 for the ρ=3 curve at X=0.0375.

c. Therefore, at a distance of 5 meters, the power density is given by:

PD = N (PD at far - field distance)

• -------------------------------

4π(2D²

⁄

)²

(126)

(50)

= -------------

4π(133.3)²

2.82 W⁄m²

0.282 mW⁄cm²

Figure D-9. Sample On-Axis Power Density Computation for a

Circular Aperture Antenna (Sheet 2)

D-6.2

If this antenna was not rotating while transmitting, the permissible exposure time in a

continuous power density of 50 mW/cm² is:

T(hr)

= ----------------------------------- =

0.02

hour

PD(mW

⁄

cm²)

and about 1 minute out of each 6 minutes would be permitted in the beam.

D-6.3

When the antenna is rotating at 6 rpm, it will make one revolution each 10 seconds

(0.167 minute), and a point will be exposed to the beam 10/360^ths (beamwidth over 360°) of this

period. The actual exposure time for each revolution is 0.278 second or 0.0046 minute. In 0.1

hour, there will be 36 revolutions (6 rev/min x 6 min), so that in this 6 minutes, the total exposure

time is 0.167 minute. The total energy/cm² is thus (50 mW/cm²)(0.167 min) (1 hr/60 min) or

0.139 mW-hr/cm². This is below the permissible intermittent exposure level of 1.0 mW-hr/cm²;

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VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

thus, the radar is not hazardous as long as it is rotating, even though the on-axis power density

exceeds the safe limit for continuous exposure.

D-7. DETERMINING THE HAZARD FROM A SCANNING BEAM

Power density from a scanning antenna can be approximated by a method similar to that

for the rotating antenna. As a rule of thumb, the fixed-beam power density of a scanning

antenna can be reduced by a factor of twice the beamwidth divided by the scan angle. That is:

PD(S)

= -----------------

× PD(F)

where:

PD(S)

= power density while scanning,

PD(F)

= fixed power density,

= beamwidth in degrees, and

= scan angle in degrees.

D-8. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULATION AIDS

The data in this paragraph includes tables and graphs which will be of assistance in the

calculation of RF radiation hazards. Explanations regarding the use of the various tables are

presented prior to the tables when such explanations are deemed necessary.

D-8.1

The relation between the frequency and wavelength of EMR is a relatively simple one.

For radiation propagating at a frequency ƒ and wavelength λ, we have the following relation:

V = λf

where:

V = the velocity of the electromagnetic wave.

Since an electromagnetic wave’s velocity is constant in free space (V = speed of light in

vacuum ≈ 3x10⁸ m/s), the wavelength can be calculated for any given frequency as:

λ = 300 ⁄ f meters or

λ = 30000 ⁄ f cm

where:

ƒ= frequency in MHz.

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NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

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D-8.2

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF A RIGHT TRIANGLE. In the right triangle shown

in figure D-10, the trigonometric functions of angle A are defined as follows:

sinA = a ⁄ c,

cos A = b ⁄ c , and

tan A = a ⁄ b .

The following relations derived from figure D-10 may also be useful when solving

problems:

c²

a²

b²

(Pythagorean Theorem),

sin

²A

+ cos

A= 1,

secA

= 1 ⁄ (cosA)= c ⁄ b (Secant Function),

cscA

= 1 ⁄ sinA= c ⁄ a (Cosecant Function),

cotA

= 1 ⁄ tanA= b ⁄ a Cotangent Function),

cos2A

= cos

²A

– sin

A , and

sin2A = 2sinAcosA .

Figure D-10. Functions of a Right Triangle

D-8.3

USE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS IN SOLVING PROBLEMS. Refer to

figure D-11, which illustrates the use of trigonometric functions in solving problems.

D-21

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VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

Given: As shown above, a radar set in which the antenna has a radiation pattern that

covers a vertical angle of 60°, with the beam center elevated +20° from the

horizontal plane. The center of the antenna is 2 meters above the base of a

pedestal, which is mounted on a 5-meter tower.

To find: Whether any part of the main beam will illuminate a person who is 1.8 meters tall

and who is on the ground at a distance of 30 meters.

Solution: Lower edge of beam = +20-(1/2 x 60)

= -10°

tan 10° =

a = b

tan 10º

= 30 × 0.1763 = 5.3

meters

The center of the antenna above ground (tower + pedestal) is 7 meters (5 meters +

2 meters), and the clearance of the beam above ground at 30 meters is 7 meters -

5.3 meters, or 1.7 meters. Therefore, a 1.8-meter person would have 1.8 meters -

1.7 meters, or 0.1 meter, of his body illuminated by the radar beam.

Figure D-11. Sample Use of Trigonometric Functions for Solving Problems

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VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

D-8.4

THE DECIBEL.

D-8.4.1

The decibel is part of a larger unit called a bel. As originally used, the bel

represented a power ratio of 10 to 1 between the strength of two sounds. To gain a better

understanding of the bel, consider three sounds of unequal power intensity. If the power

intensity of the second sound is 10 times the power intensity of the first, its power level is said to

be 1 bel above that of the first. If the third sound has a power intensity which is 10 times that of

the second, its level is 1 bel above that of the second. But, since the third sound is 100 times as

intense as the first, its level is 2 bels above that of the first. Thus, a power ratio of 100 to 1 is

represented by 2 bels; a power ratio of 1000 to 1, by 3 bels; a power ratio of 10,000 to 1, by 4

bels; etc. It is readily seen, therefore, that the concept of bels represents a logarithmic

relationship, since the base 10 logarithm of 100 equals 2 (corresponding to 2 bels), the

logarithm of 1000 equals 3 (corresponding to 3 bels), etc. The exact relationship is given by the

formula:

P₂

Bels

= log-----

P₂

where represents the power ratio.

D-8.4.2

This logarithmic characteristic of the bel makes it a very convenient means for

expressing power ratios. Since the bel is a rather large unit, however, its use may prove

inconvenient. Usually, therefore, a smaller unit, the dB, is used. Ten dB equals 1 bel. A 10-to-1

power ratio, which is represented by 1 bel, is also represented by 10 dB; a 100-to-1 ratio (2

bels) is represented by 20 dB; a 1000-to-1 ratio (3 bels) is represented by 30 dB, etc. The

formula for bels may be rewritten to give a result in dB merely by multiplying by 10. Thus, the

formula becomes:

log----- .

For example, assume that it is necessary to find the attenuation ratio of an RF attenuator which

is to be used to measure transmitter power output. On test, it is found that 60,000 W of RF

input to the attenuator produces an output of 6 mW. To find the attenuation ratio, use the

equation:

P₂

Attenuation ratio

= -----

= -----------------

0.006

= 10, 000, 000.

This ratio can be expressed much more conveniently in terms of dB.

D-23

NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

P₂

log-----

log-----------------

0.006

= 10 log 10, 000, 000

= 70 dB .

In this case, the attenuation ratio is 70 dB. In other words,

P₂

is said to be 70 dB up with

respect to P1. In all instances where

P₂

is numerically greater than

P₁, as in the above

example, the final result is expressed as a positive quantity. When

P₂

is smaller than

P₁, the

numerical result is the same, but it is expressed as a negative quantity in dB. If, for example,

P₂

is .006 W and

P₁

is 60,000 W, then:

P₂

=10

log-----

log-----------------

60, 000

= 10 log 0.0000001

= -70.

In this case,

P₂

is said to be 70 dB down with respect to

P₁

D-8.4.3

Voltage and current ratios may also be expressed in terms of dB, provided that the

resistance (or impedance) remains constant. For equal resistances, the formulas are:

log----- and

I₂

log----

The difference in the multiplying factor in these formulas (20 rather than 10, as in the case of

power ratios) arises from the fact that power is proportional to voltage or current squared, and

when a number is squared, the logarithm of that number is doubled. For power ratios, the dB

value is 10 times the logarithm of the ratio. For voltage or current ratios, the dB value is 20

times the logarithm of the ratio.

D-8.4.4

Conversions from voltage, current, or power ratios to dB may be readily made by

referring to table D-5. Conversions may also be made by means of the graph shown in

figure D-12.

D-24

NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

Table D-5. Decibel Table: Voltage, Current, and Power Ratios

MINUS

PLUS

VOLTAGE OR

POWER

CURRENT RATIO

RATIO

(EQUAL IMPEDANCE)

1.00000

0.0

1.000

0.98900

0.97700

0.1

1.012

1.023

0.97700

0.95500

0.2

1.023

1.047

0.96600

0.93300

0.3

1.035

1.072

0.95500

0.91200

0.4

1.047

1.096

0.94400

0.89100

0.5

1.059

1.122

0.93300

0.87100

0.6

1.072

1.148

0.92300

0.85100

0.7

1.084

1.175

0.91200

0.83200

0.8

1.096

1.202

0.90200

0.81300

0.9

1.109

1.230

0.89100

0.79400

1.0

1.122

1.259

0.84100

0.70800

1.5

1.189

1.413

0.79400

0.63100

2.0

1.259

1.585

0.75000

0.56200

2.5

1.334

1.778

0.70800

0.50100

3.0

1.413

1.995

0.66800

0.44700

3.5

1.496

2.239

0.63100

0.39800

4.0

1.585

2.512

0.59600

0.35500

4.5

1.679

2.818

0.56200

0.31600

5.0

1.778

3.162

0.53100

0.28200

5.5

1.884

3.548

0.50100

0.25100

6.0

1.995

3.981

0.47300

0.22400

6.5

2.113

4.467

0.44700

0.20000

7.0

2.239

5.012

0.42200

0.17800

7.5

2.371

5.623

0.39800

0.15900

8.0

2.512

6.310

0.37600

0.14100

8.5

2.661

7.079

0.35500

0.12600

9.0

2.818

7.943

0.33500

0.11200

9.5

2.985

8.913

0.31600

0.10000

10.0

3.162

10.000

0.28200

0.07940

11.0

3.550

12.600

0.25100

0.06310

12.0

3.980

15.900

0.22400

0.05010

13.0

4.470

20.000

0.20000

0.03980

14.0

5.010

25.100

0.17800

0.03160

15.0

5.620

31.600

0.15900

0.02510

16.0

6.310

39.800

0.14100

0.02000

17.0

7.080

50.100

0.12600

0.01590

18.0

7.940

63.100

0.11200

0.01260

19.0

8.910

79.400

0.10000

0.01000

20.0

10.000

100.000

0.03160

0.00100

30.0

31.600

1000.000

0.01000

0.00010

40.0

100.000

10000.000

0.00316

0.00001

50.0

316.000

100000.000

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NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

D-8.5

THE DBM.

D-8.5.1

It should be clearly understood that the term decibel does not, in itself, indicate

power, but rather a ratio of, or comparison between, two power values. It is very often

desirable, however, to express a single level or quantity of power, voltage, or current in dB, as,

for example, in transmission line work or in connection with the input or output of an amplifier.

This can be done by using a fixed power level as a reference. The original standard reference

level was 6 mW (0.006 W), but to simplify calculations, a 1-mW standard (dBm) has been

adopted and will be used hereafter as the reference level. [Some manufacturers use 1 W

(dBW) as a standard.]

D-8.5.2

When 1 mW is used as a reference level, the ratio is expressed in dBm’s. The

abbreviation dBm indicates dB relative to a 1-mW standard. Thus, a pulsed radar transmitter

having an average power output of 100 W is said to have an average power output of 50 dBm.

The conversion from power to dBm can be made as follows:

P₂

Average power

(dBm)

=10

log-----

(where

P₁

is the reference value of 0.001 W),

Average power

(dBm)

log-------------

0.001

= 10 log 100,000

= 50 dBm .

D-8.5.3

Conversions from power to dBm can be made more readily by means of the graph

shown in figure D-13. Reasonable care should be exercised in reading the graph, using the

appropriate dBm scale for power in milliwatts, watts, kilowatts, or megawatts.

D-8.6

CONVERSION OF POWER OR DBM TO MICROVOLTS ACROSS 50, 72, OR

600 OHMS.

D-8.6.1

Both the dB and the dBm are power ratios; their adaptation to voltage or current ratios

is meaningful only if the impedance is the same for both values of voltage (or current) in the

ratio. For example, the formula for the ratio, expressed in dB, of two voltages, E₂ and E₁, is as

follows:

log----- .

E₁

D-27

NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

D-8.6.2

To calculate the voltage gain of an amplifier when the input impedance differs from

the output, use the following formula:

E₂

Z₁

log-----

log -----

Z₂

where:

E₁= input voltage,

E₂ = output voltage,

Z1 = input impedance, and

Z₂= output impedance.

D-8.6.3

In calculations involving power in transmission lines, it is often necessary to convert

extremely small amounts of power to dBm or to convert either of these values to voltage, in

microvolts, which would appear across a load impedance of 50, 72, or 600 ohms. Conversions

from dBm or power in picowatts to microvolts across 50, 72, or 600 ohms, or vice versa, may be

made directly by means of table D-6.

D-28

NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

Table D-6. dBm Conversion Table

dBm

MICROVOLTS

PICOWATTS

ACROSS

50 OHMS

72 OHMS

600 OHMS

223,607.000

268,328.000

774,596.700

1,000,000,000.00000

-3

158,314.000

189,976.000

548,379.400

501,200,000.00000

-6

112,094.000

134,513.000

388,265.400

251,250,000.00000

-9

79,358.000

95,230.000

274,845.400

125,900,000.00000

-12

56,192.000

67,431.000

194,576.500

63,100,000.00000

-15

39,780.000

47,736.000

137,738.900

31,620,000.00000

-18

28,174.000

33,809.000

97,519.200

15,850,000.00000

-21

19,932.000

23,919.000

69,034.800

7,943,000.00000

-24

14,112.000

16,934.000

48,873.300

3,981,000.00000

-27

9,990.000

11,988.000

34,597.700

1,995,000.00000

-30

7,073.000

8,487.000

24,494.900

1,000,000.00000

-33

5,009.000

6,011.000

17,341.300

501,200.00000

-36

3,546.000

4,256.000

12,276.800

251,200.00000

-39

2,511.000

3,013.000

8,691.400

125,900.00000

-42

1,776.000

2,132.000

6,153.000

63,100.00000

-45

1,258.000

1,509.000

4,355.700

31,620.00000

-48

890.000

1,068.000

3,083.800

15,850.00000

-51

630.000

756.000

2,183.100

7,943.00000

-54

446.000

536.000

1,545.500

3,981.00000

-57

316.000

379.000

1,094.000

1,995.00000

-60

223.607

268.328

774.597

1,000.00000

-63

158.314

189.976

548.379

501.20000

-66

112.094

134.513

388.265

251.25000

-69

79.358

95.230

274.845

125.90000

-72

56.192

67.431

194.576

63.10000

-75

39.780

47.736

137.739

31.62000

-78

28.174

33.809

97.519

15.85000

-81

19.932

23.919

69.035

7.94300

-84

14.112

16.934

48.873

3.98100

-87

9.990

11.988

34.598

1.99500

-90

7.073

8.487

24.495

1.00000

-93

5.009

6.011

17.341

0.50120

-96

3.546

4.256

12.277

0.25120

-99

2.511

3.013

8.691

0.12590

-102

1.776

2.132

6.153

0.06310

-105

1.257

1.509

4.356

0.03162

-107

0.999

1.199

3.460

0.01995

D-30

NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

SECTION II. MEASUREMENTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

D-9. INTRODUCTION

This section provides guidance in the selection of test equipment and procedures for

performing power measurements of RF energy.

D-10. INSTRUMENTATION FOR POWER MEASUREMENTS

Instruments for field measurements of RF power density are generally either a

broadband radiation hazard meter or an RF power meter with a calibrated antenna.

D-10.1

RADIATION HAZARD METERS. Radiation hazard meters are made specifically to

detect and measure potentially hazardous electromagnetic energy radiating or leaking from RF

or microwave sources. Meters of this type are made by several manufacturers, but all have

similar characteristics of being small, portable, and indicating average power in mW/cm².

Some have optional combinations of antennas and power ranges which permit measurements

in the frequency range of 10 MHz to 18 GHz over the power range of 0.2 to 200 mW/cm².

D-10.1.1

Radiation hazard meters are designed for simplicity of operation. It is important,

however, that the user become familiar with the manufacturer’s instructions to be aware of any

instrument limitations. The antennas, or probes, are characteristically easily damaged. They

have both a maximum average power and a maximum peak power rating. Depending upon the

duty cycle, it may be possible to damage the antenna by high peak power without exceeding the

average power limit. In most cases, damage can occur even if the instrument is in the "off"

position or the antenna is not connected.

D-10.1.2

Another precaution is to be aware of the response time of the instrument. The

response time is the time required for the meter indication to reach 90 percent of its final steady-

state value. If the radiating antenna is rotating rapidly or the instrument antenna is moved

quickly, the reading may be significantly below the correct value.

D-10.1.3

Changes in the state-of-the-art and Navy requirements may result in changes of

recommended instrumentation. Those activities having a need for instrumentation should

consult their test equipment allowance list. For additional information relative to suitable

instrumentation, contact Naval Sea Systems Command (SEA-04H), Washington, DC.

D-10.2

POWER METER AND ANTENNA METHOD. Power density can also be measured

using an RF power meter, a calibrated antenna, and suitable attenuation. This measurement

technique is somewhat cumbersome; however, since laboratory-type components can be used,

it is possible to make accurate measurements over wide frequency and power ranges. The

basic RF power meter measures power in mW. When an antenna is connected to the power

meter and the capture area (effective area) of the antenna is known, then the power density in

mW/cm² can be obtained.

D-10.2.1

Power Meter. RF power meters, such as the Hewlett Packard (HP) Model 432B, may

be used for power density measurements. These instruments, or commercial equivalents, are

D-31

NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

required for the maintenance of many radars and are readily available. They typically are

capable of operating from internal batteries, have a 50-ohm input, and have multiple power

ranges with full-scale readings from 10 µW to 10 mW.

D-10.2.2

Antennas. Power-density measurements can only be made if the effective area of

the test antenna is known or can be determined. In most cases, the test antenna will be a

standard gain waveguide horn, although any type can be used if its characteristics are known.

When the effective area of an antenna is not known, it can be computed from:

A(eff)

= ----------

4π

or, for a resonant dipole, the effective area may be determined by:

10⁸

A(eff)

= ---------------

f²

where:

A (eff) = effective area in cm²,

G = gain of antenna (power ratio),

λ = wavelength in cm, and

ƒ = frequency in MHz.

D-10.2.3

Attenuators. For most instruments, it will be necessary to attenuate the signal picked

up by the antenna so it will not exceed the limits of the power meter. The attenuation can be

obtained using either a directional coupler with appropriate termination or an in-line attenuator.

In either case, both the frequency and the power ratings must be correct. The typical 2-watt

coaxial attenuators supplied with power meters, signal generators, etc., may not be suitable

because of their lower power ratings. The required power rating for either a directional coupler

termination or an in-line attenuator can be approximated by multiplying the expected power

density by the effective area of the antenna. Coaxial cables used to interconnect the RF

components will attenuate the signal, and this attenuation becomes a part of the total

attenuation.

D-10.3

POWER DENSITY MEASUREMENTS. Power density measurements may be made

using a power meter such as the HP Model 432B and the following general method of

operation:

a. Determine the frequencies at which the measurements are to be made. Select the

proper horn antenna or dipole antenna elements and directional coupler or attenuator according

to frequency band designation. To avoid damage to the meter, use an attenuator or directional

coupler having the maximum attenuation for initial measurement.

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NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

b. Interconnect the antenna and power meter using coaxial cables and attenuators as

required.

c. Orient the pickup antenna for maximum reading on the meter.

d. Take reading as required.

NOTE

Make sure the pickup antenna is positioned such that it has the same

polarization as the radiating antenna. In the event the radiating antenna is

circularly polarized and the test antenna is not, the reading should be

doubled.

Certain power meters are not designed to operate in high RF fields. In

some cases, RF energy may penetrate the equipment case and prevent

the meter from reading zero with no input. It may be necessary to either

wrap the meter in aluminum foil for additional shielding or use a long

coaxial cable to the antenna and place the meter in a reduced field.

D-10.4

EXAMPLE POWER MEASUREMENT. An example of power-density measurement is

illustrated in figure D-14.

D-33

NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529

VOLUME 1 SIXTH REVISION

Assume the following data:

a. Radar Frequency - 3250 MHz

b. Pickup Antenna - Waveline Horn Model 299

c. Connecting Cables - 10 feet of RG-9A/U

d. Directional Coupler - Narda Model 3003-20

e. Power Meter - HP Model 432B

f. Meter Reading - 1.5 mW

From the proper charts and curves, the following data was obtained:

a. Effective area of pickup antenna at 3250 MHz - 213 cm²

(obtained from graph of Waveline Horn Model 299)

b. Directional coupler attenuation at 3250 MHz - 20 dB

(obtained from table for Narda Directional Coupler 3003-20)

c. Cable attenuation at 3250 MHz - 1.8 dB

(obtained from graph for RG-9A/U cable)

Total attenuation = cable attenuation + directional coupler attenuation = 20 dB + 1.8 dB = 21.8

dB. From figure D-12, 21.8 dB = a power ratio of 151.4. Therefore,

Power Density = ^{Power Ratio x Meter Reading (mW)}

Effective Area of Pickup Antenna

= ------------------------------------

213cm²

= 1.06mW ⁄cm²

Figure D-14. Example of a Power Density Measurement

D-34

Ref: NAVSEAINST 4160.3A

(Insert Classification of TMDER Here) CLASSIFICATION

NAVSEA S0005-AA-GYD-030/TMMP

NAVSEA/SPAWAR TECHNICAL MANUAL DEFICIENCY/EVALUATION REPORT (TMDER)

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ARMY, MARINE CORPS, NAVY, AIR FORCE

CF/SOF

MULTI-SERVICE TACTICS,

TECHNIQUES, AND

PROCEDURES FOR

CONVENTIONAL FORCES

AND SPECIAL OPERATIONS

FORCES INTEGRATION AND

INTEROPERABILITY

FM 6-03.05

MCWP 3-36.1

NTTP 3-05.19

AFTTP 3-2.73

USSOCOM Pub 3-33 v.3

MARCH 2010

AIR LAND SEA

APPLICATION

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Distribution authorized

CENTER

to US Government agencies and their contractors only

to protect technical or operational information from

automatic dissemination under the International Exchange

Program or by other means. This determination was made

on 25 September 2008. Other requests will be referred to:

HQ CAC, ATTN: ATZL-CD, F t Leavenworth, KS

66027-6900; HQ MCCDC, ATTN: C116, Quantico, VA

22134-5021; NWDC, ATTN: N5, Norfolk, VA 23511-2723;

LeMay Center, ATTN:DDJ, Maxwell AFB, AL 36112-6004;

or USSOCOM, ATTN: J7 / J9 (I&I Branch), MacDill AFB,

FL 33621-5323.

DESTRUCTION NOTICE: Destroy by any method that

must prevent disclosure of contents or reconstruction of

the document.

MULTI-SERVICE TACTICS, TECHNIQUES, AND PROCEDURES

PREFACE

1. Purpose

This multi-Service tactics, techniques, and procedures (MTTP) publication

provides a comprehensive reference for commanders and staffs at the

operational and tactical levels with standardized techniques and procedures to

assist in planning and executing operations requiring integration of conventional

forces and special operations forces (CF/SOF) occupying the same operational

environment (OE). This MTTP publication serves as a reference to ensure

coordinated multi-Service operations for CF/SOF integration and interoperability

(I&I) in order to generate timely actions and increased opportunities while

reducing the potential for fratricide. The guidance provided in this publication

addressing command and control, maneuver, fire support, and force capabilities

fills a doctrinal void and provides a single source document that will enhance

effectiveness and improve inter-Service coordination.

The term conventional force (CF) is used throughout this publication since the

term general purpose force (GPF) is not sanctioned in joint doctrine. CF is not to

be confused with the acronym CF currently used to mean coalition forces in

Operation IRAQI FREEDOM (OIF) and Operation ENDURING FREEDOM

(OEF).

2. Scope

This publication describes the integration and interoperability of CF and SOF

missions and applies to CF/SOF operating in the same OE. This MTTP

publication provides joint force staffs with planning guidance concerning

missions, requirements, and capabilities of CF/SOF I&I and essential information

to effectively integrate and employ CF/SOF I&I. A checklist to summarize

pertinent planning issues is included. Information in this MTTP incorporates TTP

extracted from existing Service and joint doctrine publications and directives, as

well as subject matter expert (SME) input, and other identified best practices.

3. Applicability

This publication applies to the joint forces of the United States.

4. Implementation Plan

Participating Service command offices of primary responsibility (OPRs) will

review this publication, validate the information, and, where appropriate,

reference and incorporate it in Service manuals, regulations, and curricula as

follows:

Army. Upon approval and authentication, this publication incorporates the

procedures contained herein into the United States (US) Army Doctrine and

Training Literature Program as directed by the Commander, US Army Training

and Doctrine Command (TRADOC). Distribution is in accordance with applicable

directives and the Initial Distribution Number (IDN) listed on the authentication

page.

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USSOCOM Pub 3-33 v.3

17 March 2010

Marine Corps.¹ The Marine Corps will incorporate the procedures in the

publication in US Marine Corps training and doctrine publications as directed by

the Commanding General, US Marine Corps Combat Development Command

(MCCDC). Distribution is in accordance with the Marine Corps Publications

Distribution System (MCPDS).

Navy. The Navy will incorporate these procedures in US Navy training and

doctrine publications as directed by the Commander, Navy Warfare Development

Command (NWDC)[N5]. Distribution is in accordance with Military Standard

Requisitioning and Issue Procedure Desk Guide (MILSTRIP Desk Guide) Navy

Supplement Publication-409 (NAVSUP P-409).

Air Force. The Air Force will incorporate the procedures in this publication in

accordance with applicable governing directives. Distribution is in accordance

with Air Force Instruction (AFI) 33-360.

USSOCOM. United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) may

incorporate these procedures in USSOCOM and its components’ training and

doctrine publications as directed by the Commander, USSOCOM, and the

Director J7/J9. Distribution is in accordance with USSOCOM and its components’

policies and procedures.

5. User Information

a. US Army Combined Arms Center (CAC), MCCDC, NWDC, Curtis E. LeMay

Center for Doctrine Development and Education (LeMay Center), USSOCOM,

and the Air Land Sea Application (ALSA) Center developed this publication with

the joint participation of the approving Service commands. ALSA will review and

update this publication as necessary.

b. This publication reflects current joint and Service doctrine, command and

control organizations, facilities, personnel, responsibilities, and procedures.

Changes in Service protocol, appropriately reflected in joint and Service

publications, will likewise be incorporated in revisions to this document.

¹ Marine Corps PCN: 143 000165 00

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USSOCOM Pub 3-33 v.3

17 March 2010

c. We encourage recommended changes for improving this publication. Key

your comments to the specific page and paragraph and provide a rationale for

each recommendation. Send comments and recommendations directly to the

appropriate Service doctrine centers listed below.

Army

Commander, US Army Combined Arms Center

ATTN: ATZL-CD

Fort Leavenworth KS 66027-6900

DSN 552-4885 COMM (913) 684-4885

E-mail: LEAV-CADD-WEBB-CADD@conus.army.mil

Marine Corps

Commanding General, US Marine Corps Combat Development Command

ATTN: C116

3300 Russell Road, Suite 204

Quantico VA 22134-5021

DSN 278-2871/6227 COMM (703) 784-2871/6227

E-mail: Publication POC at https://www.doctrine.usmc.mil

Navy

Commander, Navy Warfare Development Command

ATTN: N5

1530 Gilbert Street, Bldg N26, Suite 2128

Norfolk VA 23511-2723

DSN 948-1070/4201 COMM (401) 841-1070/4201

E-mail: alsapubs@nwdc.navy.mil

Air Force

Commander, Curtis E. LeMay Center for Doctrine Development and Education

ATTN: DDJ

401 Chennault Circle

Maxwell AFB AL 36112-6004

DSN 493-2640/2256 COMM (334)953-2640/2256

E-mail: lemayctr.ddj.workflow@maxwell.af.mil

ALSA

Director, ALSA Center

114 Andrews Street

Langley AFB VA 23665-2785

DSN 575-0902 COMM (757) 225-0902

E-mail: alsa.director@langley.af.mil

USSOCOM

Headquarters US Special Operations Command

ATTN:J7 / J9 (I&I Branch)

7701 Tampa Point Blvd

MacDill AFB FL 33621-5323

E-mail: SOCOM.J7/J9I&I@socom.mil

FM 6-03.05 / MCWP 3-36.1 / NTTP 3-05.19 / AFTTP 3-2.73 /

USSOCOM Pub 3-33 v.3

17 March 2010

iii

FM 6-03.05

MCWP 3-36.1

NTTP 3-05.19

AFTTP 3-2.73

USSOCOM Pub 3-33 v.3

FM 6-03.05

US Army Combined Arms Center

Fort Leavenworth, Kansas

MCWP 3-36.1

Marine Corps Combat Development Command

Quantico, Virginia

NTTP 3-05.19

Navy Warfare Development Command

Norfolk, Virginia

AFTTP 3-2.73

Curtis E. LeMay Center for Doctrine

Development and Education

Maxwell AFB, Alabama

USSOCOM Pub 3-33 v.3

US Special Operations Command

MacDill AFB, Florida

17 MARCH 2010

CF/SOF

MULTI-SERVICE TACTICS, TECHNIQUES, AND

PROCEDURES FOR

CONVENTIONAL FORCES AND SPECIAL OPERATIONS

FORCES INTEGRATION AND INTEROPERABILITY

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

CHAPTER I COMMAND AND CONTROL

1. Introduction

2. Command and Control Overview

3. Command and Control Lessons Learned

4. Hierarchy of SOF Command and Control Relationships

5. Assignment of SOF

6. Command and Control of SOF in Theater

7. Command Relationships

8. Command and Control Systems and Tools

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Distribution authorized to US Government agencies and their contractors

only to protect technical or operational information from automatic dissemination under the International

Exchange Program or by other means. This determination was made on 25 September 2008. Other

requests will be referred to:

HQ CAC, ATTN: ATZL-CD, Ft Leavenworth, KS 66027-6900; HQ MCCDC, ATTN: C116, Quantico, VA

22134-5021; NWDC, ATTN: N5, Norfolk, VA 23511-2723; LeMay Center, ATTN:DDJ, Maxwell AFB, AL

36112-6004; or USSOCOM, ATTN: J7 / J9 (I&I Branch), MacDill AFB, FL 33621-5323.

DESTRUCTION NOTICE: Destroy by any method that must prevent disclosure of contents or reconstruction

of the document.

FM 6-03.05 / NTTP 3-05.19 / MCWP 3-36.1 / AFTTP 3-2.73

USSOCOM Pub 3-33 v.3

17 March 2010

9. CF/SOF Liaison

10. SOF C2, Coordination, and Liaison Elements

CHAPTER II CF/SOF OPERATIONS

1. Introduction

2. Lessons Learned

3. CF/SOF Operational Structure

4. CF/SOF Spheres of Influence

5. CF/SOF Operational and Planning Scenarios

6. Planning

7. Operational Considerations during Execution

CHAPTER III CF/SOF FIRES AND EFFECTS

1. Introduction

2. Fires and Effects Lessons Learned

3. Joint Fire Support Capabilities and Characteristics

4. CF/SOF Fire Support Planning

5. Fire Support Coordination

6. Clearance of Fires

7. Immediate Fire Support Planning

8. Time-sensitive Targets

9. Naval Surface Fire Support (NSFS)

10. Artillery, Rockets, and Missile Support

11. Close Air Support

12. Information Operations

13. Psychological Operations

CHAPTER IV INTELLIGENCE

1. Introduction

2. Intelligence Lessons Learned

3. SOF Intelligence Cycle

4. CF/SOF Intelligence Fusion

5. CF/SOF Intelligence Planning Considerations

6. Coalition Intelligence Planning

7. Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) Planning

8. Space-based Forces Support Planning Considerations

CHAPTER V SUSTAINMENT AND PROTECTION

1. Overview

2. SOF Sustainment Lessons Learned

3. SOF Sustainment Challenges

4. CF/SOF Sustainment Planning Considerations

5. CF/SOF Protection Considerations

APPENDIX A SOF CAPABILITIES

1. Special Operations Forces

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2. USSOCOM Command Structure

3. Army Special Operations Forces Operational Elements

4. Navy Special Operations Forces Operational Elements

5. Air Force Special Operations Forces Operational Elements

6. Marine Special Operations Forces Operational Elements

102

APPENDIX B CF/SOF UNIT COORDINATION CHECKLIST

105

1. Unit Brief

105

2. Coordination

105

APPENDIX C MISSION PLANNING AND EXECUTION CHECKLIST (CF/SOF

INTEGRATED MISSIONS)

107

1. Planning

107

2. Execution

109

APPENDIX D JOINT FIRE SUPPORT CHECKLIST

111

1. Deliberate Fire Support Planning

111

2. Immediate Fire Support Planning

113

3. Execution

113

APPENDIX E LIAISON CHECKLIST

115

1. Establish liaison requirements and qualifications

115

2. Establish liaison roles

115

3. Planning

115

4. Execution

115

5. Joint Fires

116

6. Communications

116

APPENDIX F COMMUNICATIONS CHECKLIST

117

1. Review the CEOI

117

2. Communications architecture

117

3. Network laydown (topology)

117

4. Liaison (see the liaison section of this checklist)

117

5. Order production (local) and document review

117

6. Situational awareness and/or joint operational systems

118

7. Endnotes

118

APPENDIX G SOF DETACHMENT/PLATOON RECEPTION AND

INTEGRATION CHECKLIST FOR CF

119

1. Composition of the SOF element received

119

2. Operations and intelligence brief of new OE

119

3. Mission of the SOF

119

4. Operational concerns of the SOF element

119

5. Operational concerns for CF

120

6. Safe-house operations

120

7. Define relationships and responsibilities

120

8. Training area requirements (during FID missions)

121

9. Plan for vehicle maintenance and logistics

121

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10. Operations and employment agreement

121

11. Marking methods

121

12. QRF requirements

121

13. Signal instructions

122

14. Additional requirements and concerns

122

APPENDIX H QUICK REFERENCE CHECKLIST

123

1. Intelligence

123

2. Movement and Maneuver

123

3. Fires

124

4. Sustainment

125

5. Command and Control

127

6. Protection

128

REFERENCES

129

GLOSSARY

131

List of Figures

Figure

1. Theater-level SOF C2 [Source: JP 3-05]

Figure

2. SOF Subordinate Joint Force C2 [Source: JP 3-05]

Figure

3. Notional JFSOCC C2 [Source: JP 3-05]

Figure

4. Notional JSOTF Elements [Source: JP 3-05]

Figure

5. Supported/Supporting Command Authority

Figure

6. Operational Areas Within a Theater (Source: JP 3-05.1)

Figure

7. CF/SOF Spheres of Influence

Figure

8. CF Enter a JSOA

Figure

9. SOF Enter a CF OA

Figure

10. CF/SOF Deliberate Planning

Figure

11. CF/SOF Crisis Action Planning

Figure

12. Joint D3A Targeting Cycle

Figure

13. COIN D3A Targeting Cycle

Figure

14. F3EAD Targeting Cycle

Figure

15. SOF Example CONOPS Approval Process

Figure

16. Naval Gunfire Dispersion Pattern

Figure

17. Artillery/MLRS Range Relationship

Figure

18. AC-130 Gunship Target/Fire Line

Figure

19. SOF Intelligence/Operations Cycle

Figure

20. USSOCOM Command Structure

Figure

21. USASOC (A) Command Structure

Figure

22. Special Forces Group (A)

Figure

23. Naval Special Warfare Command Structure

Figure

24. Naval Special Warfare Task Group Structure Example

Figure

25. Air Force Special Operations Command

Figure

26. MARSOC Command Structure

103

Figure

27. MARSOC Company Structure

104

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vii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

CF/SOF

Multi-Service Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Conventional Forces

and Special Operations Forces Integration and Interoperability

This MTTP publication is designed to aid conventional forces (CF) and special

operations forces (SOF) commanders and staffs. Its emphasis is on informing

CF on the unique capabilities and characteristics of SOF to ensure effective

integration and interoperability (I&I) where required.

Chapter I Command and Control

Chapter I provides the ground work for a successful relationship between CF and

SOF. That relationship is founded upon a key understanding of the command

relationships between CF/SOF commanders. It focuses on clarity in

understanding the supported/supporting command relationship as the most

critical aspect in integrating CF/SOF. The chapter also details common types of

command and control (C2) systems (Force XXI battle command brigade and

below [FBCB2], maneuver control system [MCS], friendly force tracking [FFT],

etc.) and the interoperability issues commonly found between CF/SOF using

these systems. The chapter finishes with a detailed description of liaison

requirements for successful CF/SOF operations.

Chapter II CF/SOF Operations

Chapter II provides CF/SOF operations planners mission planning guidelines as

well as details the various levels of SOF concept of operations (CONOPS) and

the associated approval levels needed. A description of the four basic types of

operational convergence is also provided.

Chapter III Joint Fire Support

Chapter III provides a detailed description of CF/SOF joint fires capabilities and

the required coordination needed for successful operations. Different types of

fires are discussed, including artillery, naval gunfire, and close air support (CAS)

to include AC-130 as well as time sensitive target (TST) procedures. This

chapter also includes the procedures for executing TST operations.

Chapter IV Intelligence

Chapter IV provides a description of intelligence fusion operations between

CF/SOF and the planning considerations for those operations. It gives insight to

the SOF intelligence/action planning cycle and describes the need for action

arms associated with any fusion cell.

Chapter V Sustainment and Protection

Chapter V provides a look at SOF’s limited internal sustainment and protection

capabilities and gives insight to the support they may require from external units.

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PROGRAM PARTICIPANTS

The following commands and agencies participated in the development of this

publication:

Joint

US Special Operations Command, MacDill AFB, FL

US Joint Forces Command, J8, Norfolk, VA

Army

US Army Training and Doctrine Command, Army Capabilities Integration Center,

Fort Monroe, VA

US Army Combined Arms Center, Fort Leavenworth, KS

Joint Readiness Training Center, Ft Polk, LA

Center for Army Lessons Learned, Ft Leavenworth, KS

1st Infantry Division, Ft Riley, KS

US Army Special Operations Command, Ft Bragg, NC

US Army Medical Department Center and School, Ft Sam Houston, TX

ODA 7222, 7th Special Forces Group, Ft Bragg, NC

Marine Corps

Marine Corps Combat Development Command, Quantico, VA

Navy

Navy Warfare Development Command, Norfolk, VA

Air Force

Curtis E. LeMay Center for Doctrine Development and Education,

Maxwell AFB, AL

Air Force Special Operations Command, Hurlburt Field, FL

US Air Force Warfare Center, Nellis AFB, NV

US Air Force Weapons School, Nellis AFB, NV

1st Special Operations Wing, Hurlburt Field, FL

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MARCH 2010

Chapter I

Command and Control

1. Introduction

a. Until recently, CF/SOF units tended to operate in separate operational areas

within the operational environment (OE), deconflicted by time and space.

Generally, CF/SOF operations were planned and executed independently within

a synchronized framework to support the joint force commander’s (JFC) overall

plan. However, combat in Afghanistan (Operation ENDURING FREEDOM) and

Iraq (Operation IRAQI FREEDOM) often produced situations in which CF/SOF

operated simultaneously in the same operational area (e.g., Operation

ANACONDA) with little time to plan and develop procedures. Although the

capability to conduct joint operations has progressed significantly over the past

20 years, circumstances still arise in which actions against the enemy are

delayed, opportunities are missed, and fratricide or near-fratricide incidents

occur. The most significant challenges occur primarily in command and control

(C2), maneuver, and fire support coordination. Issues surface due to a variety of

reasons; however, lack of adequate liaison procedures is often the primary cause

of challenges between CF/SOF units. The lack of standardized procedures;

compatible systems; and lack of knowledge of CF/SOF capabilities, limitations,

and culture create friction that impacts mission accomplishment.

b. While there are challenges in integrating CF/SOF in the same OE, there are

also great opportunities for the JFC to exploit. CF integrated with SOF by a JFC

creates unique capabilities for achieving objectives not otherwise attainable.

Integration and interoperability (I&I) enable the JFC to take advantage of both

Service and SOF core competencies and systems and effectively employ these

capabilities in the overall operational plan. CF operations are characterized by

lethal firepower, robust sustainment, extensive C2 capabilities, and relatively

large numbers of personnel. SOF operations are characterized by small units of

specially trained and selected personnel that conduct high-risk missions in

hostile, denied, and politically sensitive environments. Effectively integrating

CF/SOF actions can produce a greater effect at a higher tempo with less

potential for fratricide than operating separately.

2. Command and Control Overview

a. Effective C2 is a force multiplier that allows commanders to employ their

forces toward a common effort. C2 should have a feedback process, or

reciprocal influence, that allows commanders to best adapt to rapidly changing

circumstances.

b. Command relationships with CF/SOF should be fashioned to provide the

necessary guidance given an uncertain, noncontiguous, and asymmetric OE

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without unnecessarily restricting the initiative and flexibility of subordinate

commanders. Factors to be considered in determining command relationships

are the mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available-time

available, and civil considerations (METT-TC) [US Army uses the term

METT-TC; US Marine Corps uses the term METT-T.]; tactical situation; and the

desires of the commander charged with accomplishing the mission. It is

important to understand the commander’s critical information requirements

(CCIR), priorities, acceptable risk levels, and mission approval process.

c. As a guideline, commanders and staff must understand the following:

(1) The command relationships between converging units.

(2) C2 systems.

(3) The relationships and duties of CF/SOF liaisons officers (LNOs).

3. Command and Control Lessons Learned

a. The supported/supporting command relationship often better serves the

emerging OE. This relationship allows SOF the greatest freedom to shape the

OE without being tied to specific geographic boundaries.

b. CF/SOF commanders must jointly address the need to display open feeds

based on mission objectives, situational conditions, fratricide prevention, and

enhanced situational awareness (SA). Fratricide due to lack of common

operational picture (COP) is a much greater threat to personnel than is the

potential compromise of SOF locations.

c. CF/SOF should exchange LNOs as soon as possible and ensure the LNOs

have the required communications and information systems needed by

establishing liaison officer workstations and providing them with briefing formats,

standard operating procedures (SOPs), processes, and contact plans in the

supported unit’s operations center. The LNOs should brief their unit capabilities

and limitations to the gaining unit, maintain a message tracking system to

monitor and document information, and exchange CONOPS/situation reports

(SITREPS) early and continuously.

d. Operational planning must include a consequence management plan agreed

upon by both CF/SOF commanders. This step allows the commanders to

prepare for necessary measures to counter any negative information operations

(IO) that could result from actions on the objective.

4. Hierarchy of SOF Command and Control Relationships

a. SOF may be assigned to either United States Special Operations Command

(USSOCOM) or a geographic combatant command. Operational control

(OPCON) of SOF assigned to a geographic combatant command is exercised by

the commander of the theater special operations command (TSOC). OPCON of

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SOF attached to a geographic combatant command is normally exercised by the

commander of the TSOC or other JFC (e.g., commander, joint special operations

task force [CDRJSOTF]; commander, joint psychological operations task force

[JPOTF]; or commander, joint civil-military operations task force [JCMOTF]). In

all cases, commanders exercising command authority over SOF should—

(1) Provide for a clear and unambiguous chain of command.

(2) Avoid frequent transfer of SOF between commanders.

(3) Provide for sufficient staff experience and expertise to plan, conduct, and

support the operations.

(4) Integrate SOF in the planning process.

(5) Match unit capabilities with mission requirements.

b. SOF are most effective when special operations (SO) are fully integrated into

the overall plan. Successful execution of SO requires clear, responsive C2 by an

appropriate SOF C2 element. The limited window of opportunity normally

associated with the majority of SOF missions, as well as the sensitive nature of

many of these missions, requires a C2 structure that is, above all, responsive to

the needs of the operational unit. SOF C2 may be tailored for a specific mission

or operation.

5. Assignment of SOF

a. SOF in the United States. Unless otherwise directed by the Secretary of

Defense, all SOF based in the continental United States are assigned to

USSOCOM and are therefore under the combatant command (command

authority) (COCOM) of the Commander, USSOCOM (CDRUSSOCOM).

USSOCOM is a unique unified command in the Department of Defense (DOD) in

that it has the responsibilities of a functional combatant command, has Service-

like responsibilities, and, when established as a supported command, plans and

conducts certain SO missions worldwide. CDRUSSOCOM exercises COCOM

over assigned SOF through the commanders of its Service components or its

subordinate unified command.

(1) In its role as a functional combatant command, USSOCOM provides SOF

on a temporary basis to other combatant commands for operational

employment. When transferred, the forces are attached to the gaining

combatant command with the geographic combatant commander (GCC)

normally exercising OPCON over them.

(2) When directed, CDRUSSOCOM will plan and conduct SO missions as the

supported commander. In certain situations, the President or the Secretary

of Defense, depending upon the specific mission requirements, could

choose to exercise OPCON directly over SOF for a particular operation

without any intervening levels of command.

b. SOF in Theater. SOF assigned to a GCC are under the COCOM of the

respective GCC. The GCC normally exercises COCOM of all assigned and

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OPCON of all attached SOF through the TSOC commander (see figure 1).

(NOTE: Until the publication of revised JP 3-05 in late 2010 or 2011, figure 1

below leaves out US Marine Corps Special Operations Forces under the TSOC.

This obsolescence will be corrected when JP 3-05 is revised.)

Figure 1. Theater-level SOF C2 [Source: JP 3-05]

c. SOF Under Control of a Non-US Command. When directed by the President

or the Secretary of Defense through the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff,

GCCs may place SOF units under the control of a non-US multinational forces

commander. In such instances, OPCON of US SOF units will be retained by a

US SOF commander within the multinational command structure.

6. Command and Control of SOF in Theater

Normally, C2 of SOF should be executed within the SOF chain of command.

The identification of a C2 organizational structure for SOF should depend upon

specific objectives, security requirements, and the OE. C2 of SOF is executed

through one or more of the following:

(1) TSOC. To provide the necessary unity of command, each GCC (except for

US Northern Command) has established a TSOC as a subunified

command within the geographic combatant command. The TSOC is the

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17 March 2010

primary theater SOF organization capable of performing broad continuous

missions uniquely suited to SOF capabilities. The TSOC is also the

primary mechanism by which a GCC exercises C2 over SOF. The TSOC

commander has three principal roles—

(a) Joint Force Commander. As the commander of a subunified command,

the TSOC commander is a JFC. As such, he has the authority to plan

and conduct joint operations as directed by the GCC and exercises

OPCON of assigned commands and forces and normally over

attached forces as well. The TSOC commander may establish joint

task forces (JTFs) that report directly to him, such as a JSOTF or

JPOTF, in order to plan and execute these missions.

(b) Theater SO Advisor. The TSOC commander advises the GCC and the

other component commanders on the proper employment of SOF. The

TSOC commander may develop specific recommendations for the

assignment of SOF in theater and opportunities for SOF to support the

overall theater campaign plan. The role of theater SO advisor is best

accomplished when the GCC establishes the TSOC commander as a

special staff officer on the theater staff (in addition to his duties as a

commander, i.e., “dual hatted”). In this case, the TSOC commander

may appoint a deputy as his representative to the theater staff for

routine day-to-day staff matters.

When designated by the GCC, the TSOC commander will function as a

JFSOCC. This will normally be the case when the GCC establishes

functional component commanders for operations, absent the

establishment of a JTF. The TSOC commander can also be

designated the JFSOCC within a JTF if the scope of the operations

conducted by the JTF warrant it (see figure 2).

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operational missions as may be assigned. The JFSOCC is given the

authority necessary to accomplish missions and tasks assigned by the

establishing commander. The TSOC commander or CDRJSOTF will

normally be the individual functioning as a JFSOCC. When acting as a

JFSOCC, they retain their authority and responsibilities as JFCs. A

JFSOCC may command a single or multiple JSOTFs. The TSOC

commander will normally be established as a JFSOCC if there is more

than one JSOTF to command (see figure 3). If only one JSOTF is

established (i.e., within a JTF), the CDRJSOTF will be dual hatted as

the JFSOCC. When a JFSOC is established and combined with

elements from one or more allied or coalition nations, it becomes a

combined forces special operations component and its commander

becomes a combined forces special operations component

commander.

Figure 3. Notional JFSOCC C2 [Source: JP 3-05]

(b) JSOTF. A JSOTF is a JTF composed of SO units from more than one

Service, formed to carry out a specific SO or prosecute SO in support

of a theater campaign or other operations. A JSOTF may have

conventional nonspecial operations units assigned or attached to

support the conduct of specific missions. A notional depiction of

JSOTF elements is shown in figure 4.

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Figure 4. Notional JSOTF Elements [Source: JP 3-05]

• A JSOTF, like any JTF, is normally established by a JFC (e.g., a

combatant commander, a subordinate unified commander such as a

TSOC commander, or a JTF commander). For example, a GCC could

establish a JTF to conduct operations in a specific region of the

theater. Then either the GCC or the JTF commander could establish a

JSOTF, subordinate to that JTF, to plan and execute SO. Likewise, a

TSOC commander could establish a JSOTF to focus on a specific

mission or region assigned by the GCC. A JSOTF may also be

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established as a joint organization and deployed as an entity from

outside the theater.

• A JSOTF is established to conduct operations in a specific

operational area or to accomplish a specific mission. If geographically

oriented, multiple JSOTFs will normally be assigned different

operational areas.

• Within a JTF, if only one JSOTF is established, the CDRJSOTF will

be dual-hatted as the JFSOCC. When a JSOTF is formed to directly

support a combatant command headquarters, the TSOC commander

normally acts as the CDRJSOTF. Regardless of who it is, a

CDRJSOTF is a JFC and exercises the authority and responsibility

assigned by the establishing authority. A JSOTF staff is normally

drawn from the TSOC staff or an existing SOF component with

augmentation from other SOF or conventional units and/or personnel

as appropriate.

• When a JSOTF is established and combined with elements from one

or more allied or coalition nations, it becomes a combined special

operations task force and its commander becomes a combined special

operations task force commander.

forces through a number of organizations. These include, but are not

limited to, the following:

• Special Operations Task Force (SOTF). SOTF is a general term to

describe a group, regiment, or battalion in charge of Army SO,

organized around the nucleus of a special forces (SF) unit, and

includes a mix of Army special operations forces (ARSOF) units and

their support elements. The CDRJSOTF may establish multiple

subordinate SOTFs. The CDRJSOTF assigns each SOTF an area

within the joint special operations area (JSOA) or functional mission

under its OPCON. The SOTF may serve as an Army special

operations component (ARSOC) directly subordinate to the

CDRJSOTF, or may serve as the JSOTF when tasked. SOTFs are

established to control and support deployed operational elements.

Tactical SOF elements conduct mission planning and preparation at a

SOTF.

• Advanced Operations Base (AOB). An AOB is established by an SF

company to extend the C2 and support functions of a SOTF. For

example, an AOB may function as a launch-and-recovery site, radio

relay site, or as a mission support base. The AOB may also function in

a unilateral C2 capacity based on the mission, enemy, terrain and

weather, troops and support available, and time available to serve as

an area command or designated task force.

• Joint Special Operations Air Component (JSOAC). The commander,

joint special operations task force (CDRJSOTF) normally exercises

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Military reference books and manuals (2009-2023, Volume 2) - page 11